Confusion and ambiguity in the use of “fandong huidaomen” (reactionary secret societies) and “xie jiao” (heterodox teachings) has persisted to this day.
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In Search of China’s Secret Societies. 4. “Primitive Revolutionaries”?
Both Sun Yat-Sen and some Marxists interpreted at least certain societies as forms of political or social rebellion.
In Search of China’s Secret Societies. 3. The Tiandihui Goes Criminal
By the 19th century, the society operated a wide range of criminal enterprises in several continents. But esoteric rituals were never forgotten.
In Search of China’s Secret Societies. 2. The Origins of the Tiandihui
The most famous “secret society” was discovered in Taiwan in the 18th century. It was probably born as a group saving funds for weddings and funerals.
In Search of China’s Secret Societies. 1. Matgioi and the Esoteric Connection
The old Western notion of “Chinese secret society” owes much to a French esoteric author who died in 1939, Albert de Pouvourville.
Confucianism: “Atheism” or Religion? 5. How Confucianism Became a Religion—Unless It Didn’t
In contemporary China, some try to establish a “Confucian Church,” while Xi Jinping believes a non-religious Confucianism lives within the Communist Party.
Confucianism: “Atheism” or Religion? 4. The “Official Religion of Imperial China”?
A long process made the “Way of the Ru” an ideology governing the bureaucracy, education, and the imperial rites. The label “official religion” may however be misleading.
Confucianism: “Atheism” or Religion? 3. For Heaven’s Sake
Confucius’ notion of “Heaven” (Tian) was not necessarily religious. Rather than “a religion,” traditional Confucianism may be regarded as a “religious tradition.”
Confucianism: “Atheism” or Religion? 2. In Search of Confucius
Scholars believe a sage called Kongzi (Confucius) did exist between the 6th and the 5th century BCE. He was a traditionalist who tried to restore the way of the ancient scholars.
Confucianism: “Atheism” or Religion? 1. Is There Religion in China?
Confucianism is now presented in China as non-religious and an early form of atheism. To address the issue, we should first ask what “religion” in this discussion means.